​Coefficients of Inbreeding: Genetic vs Pedigree- Which is Better?
 
So, let’s talk about the Coefficient of Inbreeding- COI as we like to call it. COI refers to how genetically similar a dog’s ancestors are. For the last hundred years or so we have had a commonly accepted form of calculating COIs that Sewall Wright helped develop in his paper, “Coefficients of Inbreeding and Relationship”. So how does it work? “If an individual is inbred, his sire and dam are connected in the pedigree by lines of descent from a common ancestor or ancestors. The coefficient of inbreeding is obtained by a summation of coefficients for every line by which the parents are connected, each line tracing back from the sire to a common ancestor and thence forward to the dam, and passing through no individual more than once. The same ancestors may of course be involved in more than one line.” (Wright 1922). The “Wright Method” method starts by looking at a dog’s pedigree for several generations, ten is thought to be the minimum number for an accurate representation, but more is better. After you compile a pedigree for the dog, you must count the number of similar ancestors and trace back how closely they are related to one another. There is a simple formula to do this with but it becomes hard to accomplish by hand after just a couple of generations. “F = (½)(n1+n2+1), where n1 and n2 are the numbers of generations separating the individuals in the consanguineous mating from their common ancestor” (Wright 1922). Thankfully there are several programs out there now to help owners and breeders calculate their dogs’ pedigree COIs without having to pour over these numbers.
Now that we understand pedigree COI and have a little background about how it is used, let’s talk about genetic COI and the differences between the two. Genetic COI evaluates the individual pieces of DNA within a dog to trace which parts lead back to inbreeding. What Embark does is a Genome-wide COI calculation. So what’s the big difference, and why can the numbers be so different? Well, pedigree COI has two big flaws that we all often overlook- the assumption that all offspring get exactly 50/50 from each parent and that the founder dogs in a breed are all completely unrelated. The idea that individuals inherit 50% of their father’s DNA and 50% of their mother’s DNA precisely is great... In theory. However, in practice, it doesn’t quite work out so well. Turns out, DNA is really bad at reading textbooks and recombination causes quite a variation in the true amount of DNA the offspring receives from each parent. This may not seem like a big deal for a couple of generations, but after 10 generations, you’re talking about a possible difference of up to 70%! Now, let’s talk about our founders. It’s impossible to know, with certainty, how related the founding dogs in every breed or pedigree truly are; even the most meticulous pedigrees can have mistakes and missing pieces, and dogs go back further than our pedigree databases do. Your dog’s pedigree may go back to the 1800s with a set of dogs who we have assumed were all unrelated when calculating COI- only for them to all have been cousins for all we know! 
Another bonus of genetic COI calculation is that you don’t need a pedigree to do it. Since you are mapping the individual’s genome, you already know more than you would with just the pedigree. You know exactly what alleles the dog has for each gene and what issues it may be at risk for due to the genes that have been passed down through the generations. These two big mistakes that pedigree COI calculators make are why you can see such a big discrepancy between a dog’s predicted pedigree COI and its genetic COI. 
The truth of the matter is, genetics don’t lie- genetic COI is the most accurate and best method for determining the true coefficient of inbreeding in a dog. And while a pedigree COI is a useful tool, having the capability to test dogs and determine their genetic COIs is invaluable. 
References


Beuchat, C. (2014, June 18). Wright's coefficient of inbreeding. The Institute of Canine Biology. Retrieved October 11, 2022, from https://www.instituteofcaninebiology.org/blog/wrights-coefficient-of-inbreeding
Boyko, A., Boyko, A., Scientist, & Dr. Adam Boyko is the Chief Science Officer at Embark and an associate professor in Biomedical Sciences at the Cornell University College of Veterinary Medicine. Dr. Boyko has coauthored over 60 peer-reviewed scientific papers. He is a member of the Board. (2022, September 8). Dog inbreeding, its consequences, and its quantification: Embark. Embarkvet. Retrieved October 11, 2022, from https://embarkvet.com/resources/oedipus-rex-inbreeding-its-consequences-and-its-quantification/
Harrison, J. (n.d.). A Beginner's Guide to COI. Dog breed health. Retrieved October 11, 2022, from https://www.dogbreedhealth.com/a-beginners-guide-to-coi/
Wright, S. (1922). Coefficients of inbreeding and relationship. The American Naturalist, 56(645), 330–338. https://doi.org/10.1086/279872 
 

​The Importance of Breed Type
The term "Breed" is defined as, "a group of usually domesticated animals or plants with identifiable characteristics that distinguish them from other members of their species; especially a group that's characteristics are preserved by controlled mating"(Websters Dictionary) 

"Breed Type" as we know in the dog fancy is the basic form of a breed. The entire dog should be taken into consideration when one is determining what proper type is. So, the structure, temperament, and movement.  But, some breeds have a "Hallmark" that separates them from similar breed families. Some breeds are Hallmarked by the head(Bull Terrier) while some are defined by movement(Manchester Terrier.) So, when judging a dog be it in the whelping box or in the show ring this Hallmark of each breed is a vital factor in deciding weather a dog has good or bad breed type. It is to be noted that every breed has its own distinct type that separates it from other breeds. A Breeder or Judge's selection should always put type first because without breed type a breed loses its identity 

The Hallmarks of the Schipperke are; a thickset, Cobby, Wedge head, Square in profile, double tracking gait, with a unique coat pattern that create the sloping top-line when viewed from the side. (or a sloping top-line is also acceptable) The coat pattern consists of  the ruff, cape, jabot and culottes.
(AKC Schipperke Standard; Approved November 13, 1990 Effective January 1, 1991)

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Each breed has it's own unique story of how it came about to be in front of us today. Humans and Canines have consisted for thousands of years and it is no coincidence that we have bred dogs to be able to hunt, herd, guard, track, flush, retrieve, and do many other things along side us. Early on, humans understood that you could get predictable traits, size, and ability from an offspring when selecting parents that also exhibited these traits. 

​The purpose of each breed determines the size, look, movement, and temperament of each individual breed or breed family. Form and function must never be present without the other since both are key in a dog being able to perform it's purpose.
​               "'Breed for type, cull for soundness,' emphasizes the importance of keeping                form and function in mind when you select for characteristics that define                    breed type. Yet, no subject causes more angst among dog people than the                       question of what is more important — type or soundness?"-Dale Hunsburger

What is the Schipperke's Purpose? This can be found in our Standard and other Parent Club resources.
"The Schipperke is a faithful little watch dog, active, mischievous, impudent and very alert. The breed originated in the Flemish provinces of Belgium, and from the very beginning he served as a companion and guard dog for the tradesmen and barge captains of the provinces. He acquired his name because he was known primarily for his services on the barges and canal boats. (Hunting Vermin on the boats)" -SCA Breed History

So, how does the Schipperke's Type make them unique and unmistakable to any other breed and how does that play into their original purpose of being a companion, guard dog, and killer of vermin? First we need to dive into understanding what a Schipperke's type is. 

Understanding Breed Type
Breed standards are based on breed type.To understand the type of a specific breed, ask yourself:

Where was this breed developed?
Belgium; Flemish 

What health issues does this breed have?
MPSIIB, Epilepsy or other related illnesses, Hyper/Hypo-thyroidism, Slipped knees, Von Willebrand Disease Type I, hereditary cataracts,Progressive Retinal Atrophy, Cardiac, and hip joint related illness.

What was the breed’s purpose?
"The breed originated in the Flemish provinces of Belgium, and from the very beginning he served as a companion and guard dog for the tradesmen and barge captains of the provinces. He acquired his name because he was known primarily for his services on the barges and canal boats." -SCA Website
So, Companion Ratting, watchdog aka mini alarm system.

Is that purpose the same today?
Today schipperkes are able to participate in sports such as Barn-hunt. Which is a sport designed to test a dog's abilities in 'Hunting' Rats. Schipperkes are also able to complete their job as watch dogs on the daily by being the household alarm system. Schipperkes today excel at many sports such as; Agility Obedience, FastCAT, Scentwork, and much more. 

What kind of personality, body structure, and coat did it take to do this job?
"The Schipperke is very distinctive, resembling no other breed closely. It is a small thickset, cobby, square in profile, having a distinctive coat which includes an outstanding ruff, cape and culottes. All of these form the unique silhouette. One of the hardiest of all small dogs, is equally at home in the country or in a small city apartment. In spite of its small stature, he is by no means considered a “toy” breed. While usually an excellent ratter, the Schip is not a powerful fighter, although he can hold his own with most dogs of his weight and will tackle anything in defense of his household or of his master. When it comes to guarding his family, home or possessions, he has no idea of the limitations of his size. Essentially the Schip is a guard dog, completely devoted to the family, and by nature, suspicious of all strangers." -SCA Website
        Diving Deeper into temperament...
"...They are lively, busy little dogs, continually occupied with what is going on around them, careful of things given them to guard, very kind to children, always curious to know what is going on behind closed doors or about any object that has been moved. The Schipperke is usually a longlived dog for a small breed. It is not rare for them to live to be fifteen or sixteen years of age and older..."- SCA Webiste

What breeds went into developing this breed?
Somewhat unknown- Genetics say they are very relate to the Pug, Pom, and Papillion. 

How do you continue to breed away from health issues but toward type?
Though educated planning; line breeding of healthy lines that posses proper breed type. Also, using modern day health testing as a guide to choosing breeding pairs. As well as,  carefully planned out crosses to phenotypical dogs to keep type but, allowing for genetic diversity.

What are the key differences of breeds similar to your breed?
Coat Pattern, Silhouette, and tenacity. Also, Look at the above underlined above.

Selecting for Traits Is a Trade-off
Breeders who have a consistent type in their breeding program are able to produce a picture of the type, as a breeder, they want to produce. Desired traits in a breed vary from breed to breed. For the Schipperke looking at key points in the standard would be where you would see what is desirable. Breeding for traits can be a double edged sword...while we want to keep traits and emphasis what makes the breed unique we do not want to fall into hyper-types and extreme versions of a trait. Example being excessive coat where you loose coat pattern or fitting into a square but loosing your angles in front and rear. The Standard is set in writing for breeders to use as a road map and it is up to breeders to put out what's in the ring for judges to judge. 

​       Schipperkes and a New Look at Socialization
                                    Mariah Jeon
            According to the AKC standard the temperament of the Schipperke is curious yet reserved with strangers but still confident about his surroundings. So, when we are covering the topic of effective socialization, we must take into consideration the genetic predisposition of the Schipperke’s temperament. According to the standard the Schipperke is, “…reserved with strangers and ready to protect his family and property if necessary. He displays a confident and independent personality, reflecting the breed's original purpose as watchdog and hunter of vermin.” (AKC Schipperke Standard) Being reserved or ‘aloof’ does not mean aggressive or fearful of strangers. These types of behaviors should not be confused. Aloof dogs, such as the schipperke, would scoff at the idea of cuddling up next to a stranger but is still tolerant of interactions with said stranger. While a fearful or aggressive dog would cower, flee, or bark at the sight of an unfamiliar person. The difference between a schipperke that reflects the standard and a schipperke that is fearful is reduced to two things: proper socialization and genetics. It is well established within the purebred dog community that temperament and soundness are passed down through genetics. This article is not focused on the genetic aspect of a dog’s temperament, but is focused on the influence of environmental stimuli that is commonly referred to as Socialization. A puppy that is exposed to proper socialization will be able to reach their full genetic potential. But proper socialization might be different from what you might be thinking. When you think of the word socialization you might think of dog parks, puppy play dates, and having every stranger pet your new puppy; envisioning these activities as being all you need to do to socialize your schipperke puppy. Unfortunately, these types of activities have shown to cause damage such as dog reactivity and hand shyness.  This is far from proper socialization. If, during the time from 3 weeks to 16 weeks of age, a puppy has a negative experience with another dog or person, they could be left with lasting negative impressions of dogs and people throughout the rest of their life. Or your puppy has such a positive experience with other dogs and/or people that you struggle to gain your puppies attention because your puppy finds these interactions more rewarding than engaging with you. As a dog trainer, I see the following four problems on a daily basis. Poor recall, pulling on the leash, reactivity towards people or dogs, and selective hearing. All of these are more often than not caused by improper socialization at a young age.  So, what does proper socialization look like? It is a puppy that is calm and engaged with their owner not fazed by people, dogs, smells, sights, and sounds around them. They do not shut down, bark, growl or cower when exposed to new places and are able to grow from stressful situations to become a more confident dog. This all starts young in the hands of our breeders, as soon as schipperke’s eyes and ears are open, they are ready to explore their environment. So, from birth till when they reach 8-12 weeks it is up to the breeder to properly introduce their puppies to new sights, smells, sounds, and simulation. Puppy raising programs such as Puppy Culture or AviDog are great resources for breeders to follow for proper early age stimulation and environmental socialization. Exposing puppies to sounds such as the vacuum, clanking of metal, storm noises, sirens, and other load noises can greatly help puppies be unfazed by similar noises later in life. Many breeders play soundtracks of storms, sirens, and other loud noises for their puppies as soon as they can hear so that the puppies become desensitized to the unfamiliar environmental sounds. Also, while in the breeder’s care puppies should be exposed to new sights and kinetic stimuli such walking on new surfaces like grass, reflective materials, crunchy material, and unstable objects such as wobble boards and bosu balls. Puppy play pens and tunnels are also important to help puppies become more confident with the objects around them. Another step breeders can take to ensure their puppies are happy, stable, and ready to learn is to create a positive relationship between people and treats. Clicker training can be started as soon as a puppy is on solid food and will provide a jump start to their training. Rewarding eye contact and a calm focus at a young age will greatly increase their focus on their handler and calmness later on in the puppy’s life. Once a schipperke puppy is in their new home, what can the puppy owner do to continue the hard work their breeder has put into helping their puppies reach their full genetic potential? Continue building the foundation that the breeder has already started. Socialization should not be pushing your puppy into a stranger’s hands or making them be sniffed by large unfamiliar dogs.  Continue socialization training by introducing puppies to new environments, sights, flooring, sounds, and smells. When out in public work with your puppy’s focus and reward eye contact instead of teaching your dog to seek out strangers which often leads to pulling and future training issues. Socialization is not only about creating positive interactions with the environment around them, but also teaching your puppy to focus around other dogs, people, and other animals. Take your puppy out as much as possible and expose them to as much environmental stimuli as possible. For example, go to your local home depot and work on your puppy’s focus, sits, and watching you while you walk. Taking these types of trips and continuing proper socialization as soon as your puppy is settled in to his or her new home will help your schipperke not only be a good companion, but to also excel in; the obedience ring, -and the show ring. Schipperkes are highly trainable when they are socialized and able to focus on their owner in new environments. These early steps can help schipperkes in AKC Rally, Obedience, Agility and other sports. When a dog is unsure of their surroundings or so focused on everything around them it can challenging for owners to work their dogs to their true potential.  A Schipperke who is desensitized to the outside world and is focused on their handler is a happy schipperke who has reached their full genetic potential.